Milton’s Scientific Defiance

Paradise Lost is an epic poem consisting of twelve books, and it was published in 1667 by John Milton, an English poet and scholar. It is a beautiful, yet heartbreaking retelling of the Fall of mankind as described in Genesis, and the story follows Satan as he defies God, escapes Hell, and journeys to Earth, which God has just created, to defile it as an act of war against Him. The poem ends with Adam and Eve’s wistful exile from the exquisitely described Garden of Eden, and leaves the reader with a bittersweet feeling. While generally regarded as one of the most beautiful works to come out of the 17th century, Paradise Lost has its fair share of controversy, as in certain areas its theology deviates from traditional interpretations of Scripture. However, this essay will not discuss any theological claims made by the epic, but rather it will examine Milton’s use of vivid astronomical imagery throughout the book, and its relation to the rapid scientific revolution occurring during his lifetime.  

            Milton lived in a time of immense scientific advancement. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus published his work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, or On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, which methodically explained his theory that the Earth, like the planets, actually revolved around the Sun, and not vice versa; this theory became known as the Copernican model of the universe. While Copernicus was certainly not the first to propose heliocentricity, he was the first to properly support it mathematically in accord with observations. To explain this, one must look much further back. In 350 B.C., Aristotle published his De Caelo, or On the Heavens, and it was essentially the first widely accepted scientific astronomical text. He explained that the Earth was the unmoving center of the universe, and the astronomical bodies were positioned on a series of perfect spheres surrounding it. First, the Moon, then Venus, Mercury, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, then the sphere containing all the stars, and finally the edge of the universe, which propels all of the inner spheres. 

            The issue with Aristotle’s theory was that the lack of detailed astronomical observations, which show irregularities in the movement of celestial bodies, left his theory too simple. For example, planets, over the course of several days, will appear to move in one direction, stand still, and then move backwards, known as retrogradation. Likewise, the Sun, on a day-to-day basis, moves at different speeds throughout the year. The modern understanding of the universe, proposed by Johannes Kepler, explains the irregular speed of the Sun is due to the Earth’s elliptical orbit, and the planets’ retrogradation a result of the fact that they orbit the Sun, rather than the Earth, but since heliocentricity was not a serious consideration at the time, Claudius Ptolemy, in around 150 AD, attempted a geocentric theory that made sense of these irregularities, in his work the Almagest. In order to preserve the apparent divinity of perfect circles, he avoided ellipses and proposed that the center of the Sun’s orbit around the earth is off-center from the Earth’s location. Further, he believed in an epicyclical motion of the planets, which were essentially smaller circular orbits, called epicycles, on top of the larger circular orbit around the earth, called the deferent, and this explained their retrogradation. In reference to Aristotle, Ptolemy wrote, 

We study what was already grasped in such disciplines by those who pursued them in a genuine spirit of inquiry…And everything that at present we believe to have been discovered we will note down as briefly as possible and in such a way that those who have already made some progress might be able to follow.[1]

            Referred to at the Ptolemaic model of the universe, the Almagest was the scientific standard for around a millennium and a half, until Copernicus used the same seemingly irregular observations to propose a mathematically functioning heliocentric theory. However, it was not perfect, as it retained Ptolemy’s perfect circles and epicycles. Though heliocentricity was not widely accepted until over 100 years after Copernicus completed his theory, Copernicanism gained popularity among scientists not long after it was published. 

            In around 1610, Galileo Galilei, a friend of John Milton’s and firm heliocentrist, utilized a telescope to discover the detailed surface of the Moon, the phases of Venus, Saturn’s ring, and Jupiter’s moons. Johannes Kepler published his heliocentric theory from 1609 to 1621, and many other scientists like Huygens, Cassini, Brahe, and Descartes were doing important astronomical work at the time, as well as in other fields. It was a time of great scientific advancement, and as Thomas Orchard notes in his book, The Astronomy of Milton’s “Paradise Lost”, it is likely that Milton believed in a heliocentric structure of the universe as well. Orchard writes, 

There are good reasons for believing that in his latter years he renounced [Ptolemaism] entirely in favour of Copernicanism. When on his continental tour in 1638, he made the acquaintance of eminent men who held views different from those with which he was familiar; and in his interview with Galileo at Arcetri, the aged astronomer may have impressed upon his mind the superiority of the Copernican theory, in accounting for the occurrence of celestial phenomena, as compared with the Ptolemaic.[2]

            With this in mind, let us examine the astronomical structure in Paradise Lost. In Book Three, Milton writes, 

Thus they in Heav’n above the starry sphere 

Their happy hours in joy and hymning spent.
Meanwhile upon the firm opacous globe

Of this round world whose first convex divides

The luminous inferior orbs enclosed
From chaos and th’ inroad of darkness old
Satan alighted walks.[3]

            This passage notes Aristotle’s “starry sphere” and notes the Earth as being “firm”, in reference to its immovability. It is clear, then, that the form of the universe in Paradise Lost is described as geocentric. Finally, an additional key passage to address can be found in Book Eight, when Adam and the Archangel Raphael are discussing astronomy. Adam wonders about the possibility of the Sun being stationary at the center, instead of the Earth, and Raphael responds,

But whether thus these things or whether not,
Whether the sun predominant in heav’n

Rise on the earth or earth rise on the sun,

He from the east his flaming road begin

Or she from the west her silent course advance

With inoffensive pace that spinning sleeps

On her soft axle while she paces ev’n

And bears thee soft with the smooth air along,

Solicit not thy thoughts with matters hid.

Leave them to God above.[4]

            Raphael, in an almost warning tone, advises Adam not to concern himself with questions like these. With these two passages in mind, and the assumption that Milton believed in a heliocentric universe, a question is raised: Why did Milton write Paradise Lost with a geocentric structure, and why does he write the Archangel Raphael to tell Adam not to wonder about such things? 

            First, a clarification must be made. While Paradise Lost is written with a geocentric structure, it is not necessarily Ptolemy’s model. The actual layout of the heavens is a bit confusing and vague in places, and Katherine Morse, in her paper “Milton’s Ideas of Science as Shown in “Paradise Lost””, notes that, “[Milton’s astronomy] is, indeed, an unexampled combination of vagueness and exactitude, of material limitations and sublimity… It is the conception of a soaring intellect and a blind man who sees flashing lights and geometrical shapes in the darkness.”[5] Its simplicity, which is completely intentional, is reminiscent of Aristotle’s structure in De Caelo. And, like Aristotle’s work does not rely much on precise observation, Milton’s structure is simply good enough for Adam and Eve to appreciate. The Archangel Raphael, implying Adam should be more concerned with marveling and appreciating God’s creation, says, 

From man or angel the Great Architect
Did wisely to conceal and not divulge
His secrets to be scanned by them who ought
Rather admire.[6]

            Thomas Orchard explains that geocentricity is, at least, the most obvious to the uninstructed observer, and he writes, “We therefore find that Milton adopted the system

most in accord with the knowledge and intelligence possessed by the persons portrayed by him in his poem;”.[7] Neither Adam nor Eve, nor any person unacquainted with a sufficient understanding of astronomy, would be expected to guess the Earth was hurtling through space; geocentricity is the obvious answer.

            The first reason why Milton wrote Paradise Lost geocentrically, and wrote Raphael to advise Adam to not concern himself with such things, is because he lived in a time of great scientific, and religious, division and dispute, and Milton wanted to stress the importance of beholding the beauty of God’s creation. In Milton’s own lifetime, he saw Galileo, a man he had known personally, put under house arrest by the Roman Catholic Church for his astronomical views. Galileo was not the only example of this sort of thing, and in general, it was a dangerous and tense time to hold radical beliefs of any kind. While one might think it possible Milton avoided heliocentricity for his own physical protection, this is unlikely, since theologically, Paradise Lost was already plenty controversial. It is clear the poet was not remotely afraid of controversy, and writing an epic that utilized a modern theory of the universe would not get him in worse trouble than he would already be in. Rather, he wrote the epic poem to be a beautiful romanticization of a classic story, and writing it heliocentrically simply would have shifted the reader’s attention off of the goal of the story. And yet, the book is chock-full of astronomy because Milton wanted his reader to appreciate science it for its own beauty, and to admire the majesty of God’s creation. 

            Also, quite simply, Milton was a great lover of science, but also obviously of classic literature, which prior to his own time, was purely geocentric. Thomas Orchard writes, “His form of astronomical belief was adopted by all the authors whose works he perused and studied in his younger days, including his favourite poet, Dante;”[8] Astronomy was going to be included in Paradise Lost regardless of which universe structure Milton believed—but had it been Copernican heliocentricity, the 17th century reader would likely get too caught up in the controversy of the theory and lose sight of its beauty. When Raphael tells Adam to not dwell on such things, he is not necessarily commanding that mankind should not wonder, but rather warning that it is easy to lose sight of what is truly important: praising God. Taking a step back from the religious controversy of the time, the importance placed on whether a person believed the Sun rotated east around the Earth, or the Earth west around the Sun, to the extent of putting a person under house arrest, seems, in a way, almost absurd. It is clear that by choosing a neutral middle ground that was neither Ptolemaic nor Copernican—what Thomas Orchard called the “perspective of the uninstructed observer”[9]—Milton wanted to remind the reader to not get caught up in things that do not seem to ultimately matter very much. In this spirit, Galileo, seemingly not at all concerned with being radical, or being right, but completely enchanted by the vastness and beauty of the heavens, wrote in his letter, The Starry Messenger, “It is a very beautiful thing, and most gratifying to the sight, to behold the body of the moon, distant from us almost sixty earthly radii,”.[10]

            There is a second reason why the Archangel Raphael advises Adam not to press into matters concealed. While astronomy is very present in Paradise Lost, it is not the overarching theme of the book; after all, the plot is, of course, the Fall of mankind, and one will find that Raphael’s words actually perfectly reflect this. The immoral pursuit of knowledge, an excess of curiosity, is literally how Satan tempted Eve to eat of the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Satan, disguised as a serpent, asks Eve,

Shall [fruit of the Tree of Knowledge] be shut to Man which to the beast

Is open? Or will God incense His ire
For such a petty trespass and not praise
Rather your dauntless virtue whom the pain
Of death denounced (whatever thing death be)
Deterred not from achieving what might lead
To happier life, knowledge of good and evil?
Of good, how just? Of evil (if what is evil
Be real) why not known since easier shunned?[11]

            Appealing to her intellect, he convincingly reasons that more knowledge means less sin, though this is evidently not always the case. Though Raphael’s conversation with Adam takes place before The Fall occurs, Raphael is foreshadowing it, and hinting at the dangers of pursuing knowledge to too far a degree. Further, this insatiability reflects Satan’s character and his constant dissatisfaction with his situation in Heaven and Hell, and the state of the Earth. This greed, even lust, for knowledge, Milton clearly saw present in his own age, and by applying it to a relevant issue, like astronomy, he was able to convey that danger to his reader, who might otherwise forget that the sins in the Garden are as relevant today as they were then. 

            It could be that Milton chose neither Ptolemaism nor Copernicanism because he disliked both. Or perhaps maybe he did not want to pick a favorite, or maybe he felt his readers would expect him to take a side and he did not want to. The bottom line is this: sin was as present in the 17th century as it was immediately after The Fall, and to illustrate this, while simultaneously helping the reader appreciate the beauty of God’s creation, Milton shifted the focus of the epic off of modern issues, and onto the oldest ones, while giving the reader ways to relate them to the present day. Never does the book warn that curiosity and wonder are inherently evil traits; rather, it shows how quickly the pursuit of knowledge can go horribly wrong and cause a person to lose sight of what is important. For Milton, the line between a healthy pursuit of knowledge, and curiosity gone too far, seems clear; science in general is never discouraged in Paradise Lost, however it is clear both from Raphael and Adam’s conversation, and from Eve eating from the Tree of Knowledge, that the ultimate purpose in life is to worship God. When pursuit of knowledge is no longer for the end being able to praise God and behold Creation to a greater degree, but to satisfy one’s own lust for knowledge, there is great danger.

            To conclude, let us restate the question posed at the beginning: Why did Milton write Paradise Lost with a geocentric structure, and why does he write the Archangel Raphael to tell Adam not to wonder about such things? He did so because by picking a middle ground that was neither Copernican nor Ptolemaic to avoid distracting the reader with relatively unimportant issues, especially in a time where scientific beliefs could get people in trouble, they are able to simply appreciate the beauty and majesty of science. Further, the overarching theme of Paradise Lost is the danger of the pursuit of knowledge, and Raphael reminds both Adam and the reader of this by relating it to a subject relevant to the reader’s everyday life. These two reasons, that Milton wanted to shift the focus off of the heliocentricity debate, but also bringing it to the reader’s attention, may seem contradictory at first, but they are not so because Milton expertly balances the two. Raphael references the debate, but not in such a way that the reader believes Milton has taken a radical stance, which both reminds the reader of its seeming unimportance, while also showing the danger of the pursuit of knowledge. In a time of immense scientific and religious dispute, Milton sought to help the reader by retelling the oldest story known to mankind, in hopes that they be surprised by its relevance, and enchanted by its beauty. 

The angel ended and in Adam’s ear

So charming left his voice that he a while

Thought him still speaking, still stood fixed to hear,

Then as new waked thus gratefully replied:
What thanks sufficient or what recompense
Equal have I to render thee, divine
Historian, who thus largely hast allayed
The thirst I had of knowledge and vouchsafed
This friendly condescension to relate
Things else by me unsearchable, now heard
With wonder, but delight, and, as is due,
With glory attributed to the High
Creator.[12]

         [1] Ptolemy, Bruce M. Perry, and William H. Donahue, The Almagest: Introduction to the Mathematics of the Heavens (Santa Fe, New Mexico: Green Lion Press, 2014). 25-26.

          [2] Orchard, Thomas. 1896. The Astronomy of Milton’s “Paradise Lost.” London, New York, and Bombay: Longmans, Green, and Co. 89.

        [3] Milton, John. 2005. Paradise Lost. Edited by Gordon Teskey. New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton & Company. Book Three, lines 416-422.

          [4] Paradise Lost, Book Eight, lines 159-168.

                  [5] Katherine Morse, "Milton's Ideas of Science as Shown in Paradise Lost," The Scientific Monthly 10, no. 2 (February 1920): 154.

          [6] Paradise Lost, Book Eight, lines 72-75.

          [7] The Astronomy of Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’, 97.

          [8] The Astronomy of Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’, 94.

          [9] Ibid., 97.

[10] Galileo Galilei, and Stillman Drake. 1990. Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo : Including the Starry Messenger (1610), Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615), and Excerpts from Letters on Sunspots (1613), the Assayer (1623). New York: Anchor Books. 330.

         [11] Paradise Lost, Book Nine, lines 691-699.

         [12] Paradise Lost, Book Eight, lines 1-13.